Chapter 1 – Outcomes-Based Education

Time is fast approaching and our schools are intensely pressured to improve and change for the better especially on the academic performance of the students. We need a new curriculum which does not focus on content but to the students.Outcomes-Based Education is an education that is anchored and focused on outcomes. Its approach to education is student-centered which focuses on the intended learning outcomes resulting from instruction. It is also an approach in planning, delivering and assessing instruction by choosing the methodology that leads to the intended outcomes and an assessment process that determines the attainment of intended outcomes. CHED Memo 46.s. 2012-mandates outcomes-based education(OBE) standards for higher education institutions while the Department of Education introduced Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum-K to 12 Curriculum and Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) used competency standards in its Training Regulations.

OBE has four basic principles according to Spady (1994); first is the clarity of focus wherein teachers should focus on helping the students to develop their knowledge and skills that will enable them to achieve the articulated intended outcomes and focus on what they want students to know, understand and be able to do. Second, is designing down, teachers design instruction once the intended outcomes are clear. Third, is high expectations wherein teachers should establish high, challenging standards of performance in order to encourage students to engage deeply in what they are learning. And lastly, expanded opportunities which states that teachers must strive to provide expanded opportunities for all the students.

OBE focuses more on the outcomes of learning. While the focus before is more on the inputs of the teaching-learning process it is aiming on teachers, their facilities and their resources, among others the OBE focuses on the outputs of learning instead. Examples are competencies acquired and developed by students and how these things become concrete and measurable to be applied in the future.

In planning the learning experiences of the students under OBE, teachers now create their class syllabus with the end in mind.

Because of OBE, I will study hard and focus on my studies in order for me to have a competent skill in the future. I can prove to myself and to other people who don't believe in my capabilities that paper works will not be the only basis of how far I can go. I want to challenge myself to transform my old self into a competent and an effective individual after I finish my course. OBE really is viewed as a means to ensure better mobility and acceptability of our graduates and professionals in the future.

Chapter 2– Teaching Approaches and Methods.

Teaching is an art and it takes great artists known as teachers to be able to work on a master piece called learning. Artistry, Creativity and Resourcefulness are needed to come up with good teaching approaches and methods. It is most likely the significant tool that a teacher uses for student's learning. Teaching approaches and methods must be utilized well for the student's effective way of getting knowledge.

Teacher transcends knowledge and learning to the students using the appropriate and much needed approach and method of teaching. It will serve as teachers' guide to facilitate student's learning.Teaching approach is a set of principles and ideas about the nature of learning which is translated into the classroom. It is said to be a great instrument to nurture the needs of the students. Also, it is a huge part of measuring if the teacher is successful in imparting knowledge. It is essential to choose the best possible approach that is suited to the topic and to the student's capacity. In teaching method, it is more of the systematic way of doing something. Thus, a teacher must always prepare a logical arrangement of steps in facilitating the students' learning.

There are many kinds of teaching approaches and methods. The teacher centered approach is one of it where knowledge all comes with the teacher. The student centered approach provides the opportunity for the students to show off their capabilities. There is also called interactive approach which involves active way of learning. Also, the integrated approach is like hitting two birds with one stone. It is because it connects a certain lesson to another one.

The successful delivery of lesson depends on the teacher and his or her way of using approach and methods. The students are the one who receive the lesson and it is considered well-translated information if their lesson is remarkable. The teacher and the students are involve in having good lesson in the classroom but the approach and method used are the reason of whatever outcome it will result to.

Chapter 3– Constructivist Teaching 

Constructivism is a learning theory based on the idea that new knowledge is "constructed" on top of learner's existing knowledge. It is one of the approaches in teaching that nurtures teaching - learning process to become meaningful and effective. 
According to Vygotsky's (1998) “Social learning theory states that we learn from others. No one has the monopoly of the truth. Then it must be good to listen to others' perspectives in our search for answers, in our search for truth.”
Nobody in this world really has or really knows what the truth is or where the idea really came from. We need the idea of others in order to come up with a better idea. This quote will lead us to interactive teaching.
Interactive teaching is a two way process, first, we have the teacher, second, are the other learner in the class. Interactive teaching, the word interactive reminds us of people with whom the learner interacts in order to learn. The interaction can be collaborative and so we have collaborative teaching and learning.

Teachers use different techniques and strategies to impart knowledge to their students, but how do constructivist approach be effective in teaching and learning? First, it doesn't focus on the theory itself but it focuses on the students' prior knowledge and it encourages them to think critically. Second, unlike in traditional teaching that the students are only passive from textbooks and other reading materials, this kind of approach develop the students' skills through on-hand activities. They will be engage in different activities that will help them to know their strengths and weaknesses. Students learn through their own experiences and they can apply what they've learned in real life situations. Third, it is a good way of developing student-teacher relationship wherein the student can express their ideas and the teacher will clarify their queries. Thus, it involves collaborative learning where students learn by their own and by the other people around them. Lastly, it supports equality and transparency. The students are being evaluated through their performance. Also, it is one way of knowing if the student gain something or not.

As what I have reflected, this approach widens my knowledge in the field of teaching. It is an essential way of imparting the learning to students. Moreover, learning-teaching process will never be effective without the cooperation and collaboration of the students and the teacher.

Chapter 4– Problem-based Learning and Project-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem-solvers confronted with an ill-structured situation that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face as future managers in complex organizations.

Here are some reminders for PBL to Work:

1. The problem must be designed in such a a way that different appropriate solutions may apply.
2. The problem must be a real-world scenario.
3. The problem must be relevant to the students and must be developmentally appropriate.
4. Guidelines must be set on how the team will work together and the expected dates of completion.
5. Teacher gives guidance but does not give answers to students.
6. Students must be given reasonable amount of time to do the work.
7. Teachers make clear how the performance will be assessed.

And the next approach in this chapter is the Project- Based Learning (PrBL/PjBL). What is Project-based Learning?
Project-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy that involves a dynamic classroom approach in which it is believed that students acquire a deeper knowledge through active exploration of real-world challenges and problems. Students learn about a subject by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to a complex question, challenge, or problem.
It focuses on a production model. As the name implies involves a project which involves a complex task and some form of student presentation and/or creating an actual product.
Students can do Project-based Learning by defining the purpose of creating end product, identifying their audience, doing research on the topic, designing the product, implementing the design, solving the problems that arise and finally coming up with product. The two approaches that are discussed earlier are linked to each other and are related to other approaches namely the inquiry-based, collaborative, research-based, interactive and constructivist.
Problem-based learning uses an inquiry model or a problem-solving model and the students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem found in trigger material. This is an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem.

Project-Based Learning integrates knowing and doing and it is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging students in investigation. 

In addition, Problem-Based Learning needs necessary reminders to succeed.. 

First, Students should be given sufficient time to work on and present their projects. Second, the presentation of the product or project is not the end of PrBL. The product/project presentation must lead the students to reflect on the processes that they undertook, why they succeed/did not succeed in completing the project,next steps they might take and what they gained in the process, and how they can further improved on the process. Lastly, encourage the students to employ creative and interesting ways on presenting their project to sustain the audience's attention. 

I have also learned that both Problem-Based Learning and Project-Based Learning have the same features because they are both based on constructivist approach to learning,Learner-focused, Experiential, Geared toward “real world”  tasks, inquiry-based, and projects or problems have more than one approach or answer.

Problem-based Learning and Project-Based Learning can help not only the students but the community as well in solving problems in the society.

Chapter 5– Research - Based Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century

There are nine categories of instructional strategies that are needed to consider in the field of teaching and in the process of this approach.

The first category is the setting objectives and providing feedback. Provide students with a direction for learning and information about how well they are performing relative to a particular learning objective so they can improve their performance. Provide feedback to make students understand what was correct and what was incorrect and to make clear what students need to do next. Provide feedback in time to meet students’ needs and should be criterion reference. As a teacher, you should engage students in feedback process.

Reinforcing effort and providing recognition. Enhance students’ understanding of the relationship between effort and achievement by addressing students’ attitudes and beliefs about learning. Provide students with abstract tokens of recognition or praise for their accomplishments related to the attainment of a goal. Teach students that success is within their control because it comes as a result of their effort and not because of other people or of luck and, of course, provide praise that is specific and aligned with expected performance and behaviors

Cooperative learning. Provide students with opportunities to interact with one another in ways that enable their learning. Learning atmosphere is more favorable when students work together rather than compete and work against one another.

Cues, questions and advance organizers. Enhance students’ ability to retrieve, use and organize what they already know about the topic.Use explicit clues. This can be done by giving preview of what is to be learned perhaps with the use of pictures, by explaining the learning outcomes of the lesson/unit and providing a list of guide questions that they should be able to answer at the end of the lesson. Ask inferential questions, not fact questions and make use of advance organizers. This is meant to give the students what they are expected to learn before the real teaching-learning takes place.

In this category, there are four formats involved namely the expository, narrative, skimming, and graphic.

The first format, expository advance organizer, describes in written or verbal form the new content the students are about to learn. A narrative advance organizer presents lesson in a story form to make relevant connection to the lesson. Skimming is when the teacher provides the learners with the opportunity to skim over the information that is about to be introduced, focusing on highlighted information. Graphic Organizers are used as a method of presenting information in the visual realm. They are efficient because they highlight and focus on just the important aspects and they also show relationships between necessary information. Graphic Organizers take on a plethora of avenues and looks, but the two most utilized are Venn Diagrams and Concept Mapping.

Non-linguistic representation. This enhances the student’s ability to represent and elaborate on knowledge using mental images. In a research, it was concluded that 18% are auditory learners, 32% are visual learners, 25% are tactile learners, and 25% are kinesthetic learners. There are many ways to teach non-linguistic representation for more effective and informational way of teaching. One of those is graphic organizer, a visual display that demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts or ideas. Making Physical models and Manipulative, manipulative are physical tools of teaching that engage students visually and physically with objects. Generating Mental Pictures, mental Pictures are the representations of the physical world in a present’s mind. Creating Pictures, Illustrations and Pictographs by hand or on a computer is an opportunity for personalized learning.  And lastly, engaging students in kinesthetic activity, students move around as part of learning activities, they create more neural networks in their brains and the learning stays with them longer.

Summarizing and note taking. Enhance student’s ability to synthesize information and organize it in a way that captures the main idea and supporting details. When we talk about summarizing, it is how we take larger selections of text and reduce them to their bare essentials: the gist, the key ideas, the main points that are worth noting and remembering. Note Taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way.

Assigning homework and providing practice. Extend the learning opportunities for students to practice, review and apply knowledge. Enhance student’s ability to reach the expected level of proficiency for a skill or process. To ensure that homework works, design homework that provides students with opportunities to practice skills and processes in order to increase their speed, accuracy, fluency and conceptual understanding or to extend their learning on a topic already learned.

Identifying similarities and difference. Enhance students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge by engaging them in a mental process that involves identifying ways in which items are alike and objectives. Comparing is showing similarities and differences. Classifying is the process of organizing groups and labeling them according to their similarities. Creating metaphors is the process of identifying a general or basic pattern in a specific topic and then finding another topic that appears to be quite different but has the same general pattern and creator analogies is the process of identifying relationships between pairs of concepts or between relationships.

The last category is generating and testing hypotheses. Enhance students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge by engaging them in a mental process that involve making and testing hypotheses. When students generate and test hypotheses they actually applied principles learned. They deepen their understanding of the principles upon which they base their hypotheses. Generating and testing hypotheses can be also applied in problem solving. The process of generating and testing hypotheses can also apply in investigation process. In all of these instances where the students are asked to generate hypotheses, the students are made to explain why they should forward such hypotheses. To help students learn for mastery the teacher must ensure mastery by seeing to it that he/she creates a positive learning atmosphere develops through understanding of the lesson not only memory or recall and that he/she gives opportunities to students to extend and apply their learning.

Research-based teaching means that the learners, teachers and the curriculum apply research-based approach in the learning- teaching process with an open outcome. It is intended and used to understand learning outcomes and create assessments as well as assist with the development of appropriate teaching strategies.

The demands of the 21st century are solving problems flexibly, thinking critically and creatively, using knowledge and skills in new situations, collaboration and communication skills and technology literacy. 

Teaching students for whom English is a new language is filled with challenge and opportunity, especially in the remote areas wherein there is lack of transportation and are  very populated areas but with the help of technologies in ways that support their academics, learning will easily take place while promoting social development, self-esteem, and individual empowerment.

Chapter 6– Instructional Planning and Development

In instructional planning and development there are important points to remember, and these are:

1. Our daily teaching-learning is supposed to contribute to the realization of the vision statement of the DepEd.

2. If you belong in a private institution, bear in mind the vision-mission statement of your school in addition to that of DepEd’s vision and mission statement.

3. Consider too the Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF), the framework issued through Executive Order No. 83 by the office of the president on October 1, 2012.  

4. These Grade 10 and 12 qualifications laid down in the PQF flow into the standards that are contained in the Curriculum Guide for K to 12. These standards are in different levels– learning area standards, key stage standards and grade level standards.

5. Our instructional planning is supposed to begin with a study of the K to 12 Curriculum Guide.

6. Which instructional plan you are going to prepare depends on what your school requires.

7. Apply all the principles of teaching and learning that you have learned in Principles of Teaching 1 and the research—based instructional strategies discussed in Chapter 4. As you plan instruction you should also be guided by the same guiding principles upon which the K to 12 Curriculum Guide was developed.

8. Always begin with end in mind.

9. Do assessments to ensure learning

10. Give your students opportunity to assess themselves.

11. You teach two knowledge; declarative and procedural knowledge.

12. Don’t forget that part of instructional planning is utilization of assessment results.

These important points can help us to construct a firm and an effective plan that will help us to achieve our intended outcomes that will result to skill and knowledge-oriented students.

 I have learned that there are also some important guidelines when planning and creating an instructional plan and I have learned that before the BEC and K-12 Curriculum, there exist several programs that are used to become guide and an experiment to other institutions.

Chapter 7– The Teaching of the Language Subjects

“First Year Education Students are characterized by no concerns, Student Teachers by increased concerns, beginning Teachers by survival concerns and Experienced Teachers by self-concerns”

            Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)

          Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education is education in several languages based on the mother tongue. The beginning language of teaching mother tongue, termed as language 1 (L1). This leads to the learning of a second language, called Language 2 (L2) and a third language called Language 3. In the Philippines, Language 1 may differ across the country.

         What is meant by mother tongue? Section 4 of the Implementing Rules and Regulations of Republic Act 10533, otherwise known as the Enhance Education Act of 2013 defines Mother Tongue as “the language or languages first learned by a child, whom he/she identified as exclusive language user by others, which he/she knows best, or uses most.”

            Guiding Principles for Teaching and Learning in MTB-MLE

          Effective language learning proceeds from the known to unknown. This means that you begin with what the learners know and used what they know to learn what they do not yet know. This is building on what students know and gradually proceeding to the unknown.

             Language learning, and all other kinds of learning for that matter, is an active process. Learners must be actively involved in the learning process in order to learn. To learn to speak, read and write a particular language, learners must speak, read and write the language. There is no other way to learn a language except to speak, read and write the language.

             Successful language learning focuses on meaning, accuracy and fluency not either fluency or meaning or accuracy but both meaning, accuracy and fluency.

            The Department of Education, however, claims that they have overwhelming evidences from national and international researches that tell us that children who were first taught in their mother tongue learned a second language faster and better than children who were not taught in their mother tongue. Children who were first taught in the mother tongue performed much better than those who were not first taught in the mother tongue.

             The Teaching of Filipino Language.

          The end goal of the k-12 curriculum is the development of a “buo at ganap na Filipino na may kapaki-pakinabang na literasi (wholistically developed and functionally literate filipino).

The learning Area/ Program Standard (Pamantayan ng Programa) This describes the intended outcomes that are expected to be realized in the teaching of Filipino as a subject in the entire K-12 Curriculum.

     The intended Outcomes of the learning area/program standard Naipamamalas ng mag-aaral ang kakayahang komunikatibo, replektibo/mapanuring pag-iisip at pagpapahalagang pampanitikan sa pamamagitan ng iba’t ibang babasahin at teknolohiya tungo sa pagkakaroon ng pambansang pagkakakilanlan, kultural na literasi at patuloy na pagkatuto upang makaagapay sa mabilis na pagbabagong nagaganap sa daigdig.

             The Teaching of English language in the K-12 Curriculum.

             The end goals of English Language Teaching are as follows:

             Communicative competence. Is the student’s ability to understand and use language appropriately and correctly to communicate in authentic situations.

            Multi-literacies. It implies that the text is not the only way to communicate. Text is combined with sounds and images.

            The learning standard area of English teaching states that “The learner demonstrates mastery of basic skills in the English Language Arts, communicates appropriately, fluently and orally and writes for a variety of purposes in different social and academic context at his/her level while carrying out real life tasks as necessary to cope with the demands of a functionally literate and competent, local, national and global citizen.”

             Communicative Competence: The Goal of Language Teaching (Mother – tongue, Filipino, English)

             Communicative Competence is the learner’s ability to understand and use language appropriately to communicate in authentic (rather than simulated) social and school environments.

             Four Aspects of Communicative Competence. 

Michael Canale and Merrill Swain (1980) identified four components of Communicative Competence and these are:

             Grammatical competence

           Is concerned with mastery of the linguistic code (verbal or non- verbal) which includes vocabulary knowledge as well as knowledge of morphology, syntactic, semantic, phonetic, and orthographic rules.

             Sociolinguistic competence

             This refers to possession of knowledge and skills for appropriate language use in a social context. In hymes, Sociolinguistic competence is knowledge of rules and conventions that underlie the appropriate comprehension and language use in different linguistic and socio-cultural contexts.

             Discourse competence

        This is so-called interactional competence that includes textual and rhetorical competence. This concerns the selection, sequencing, and arrangement of words, structures and utterances to achieve a unified spoken or written text. ( Celce-Murcia et al. 1995:13)

             Strategic competence

             This refer to “ a speaker ability to adopt his/her use of verbal or non-verbal language to compensate for communication problems caused by the speaker’s lack of understanding of proper grammar that used or insufficient knowledge of social behavioral and communication gaps.

             The Principles of Language Learning

             1.     Cognitive Principle

                a. Anticipation of Reward- Learners are motivated to perform by the thought of a reward, tangible or intangible, long or short-term.

              b. Meaningful Learning- Providing a realistic context to use language is thought to lead to better long term retention, as opposed to rote learning.

                 c. Automaticity- This is subconscious processing of language for fluency.

               d. Strategic Investment- Success in learning is dependent on the time and effort learners spend in mastering the language.

                e. Intrinsic Motivation- The most potent learning “rewards” to enhance performance are those that stem from the needs, want and desires within the learner (Brown, 1994).

             2.     Linguistic Principle

              a. Native Language Effect- A learner’s native language creates both facilitating and interfering effects on learning.

                   b. Communicative Competence- Fluency and use are just as important as accuracy and usage.

           c. Interlanguage- In second language learning, learners manifest a systematic progression of acquisition of sounds and words and structures and discourse features.

             3.     Socio-affective Domain

                 a. Language-Culture Connection- Learning a language also involves learning a complex system of cultural customs, values and ways of thinking, feeling or acting (Brown, 2000).

                 b. Self-Confidence- This is self-esteem or “I can do it” principle.

                 c. Risk- Taking- Students who are self-confident take risks and accomplish more.

                d. Language Ego- “the identity a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks” – Alexander Guiora

                 Approaches, Methods and activities in Language Teaching.

                 History of methods of Language Teaching.

Nothing is taken as gospel; nothing is thrown out of court without being put to the test. This “test” may always change its mechanics, but the fact remains that the changing winds and shifting sands of time and research are turning the desert into a longed-for oasis.” (Brown, 2004)

                 Grammar translation method

                1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue with a little active use of target language.

                2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

                3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.

               4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.

                The Direct Method

             
                1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

                2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.

          3. Oral communication classes were built up in carefully traded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

                4. Grammar was taught inductively.

               Audio-lingual Method

             
               1. New material is presented in dialog form.

               2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over learning.

               3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught at one time.

               4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.

              5. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation.

               The Designer Methods

           Community Language Learning. This is an effectively-based method. This reflects Carl Rogers’ view of education in which learners in a classroom are regarded as a “group” rather than a “class” in need of certain therapy and counselling.

            Suggestopedia. This grew from Bulgarian psychologist Georgi Lozanov’s view that the human brain could process great quantities of material if simply given the right conditions for learning, among which are state of relaxation and giving over of  control to the teacher.

         The Silent Way. This method capitalized on discovery learning. If the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned. By accompanying physical objects and by problem solving involving the material to be learned (Richards and Rodgers, 1986)

            Total Physical Response

       
        This method demands listening and acting. The teacher is the ‘director’ and the students are the ‘actors’ (Asher, 1977)

            The Natural Method

   
     In this method it is believed that learners would be benefited if production is delayed until speech emerges.

            Communicative Language Teaching

      The primary goal of CLT is for students to acquire proficiency through pragmatic uses of the target language in speaking, listening, reading and writing. To make that happen, teachers make informed use of authentic materials and contexts.

            I have learned that there are many changes in our curriculum from SEDP,BEC, to K-12 program and also as a future teacher I will put in mind that I will be a culture-sensitive facilitator of learning for the students to learn and be self-confident at all times in order to reach their goals.